Research Tools and Techniques: Introduction and Research Process
Lecture 1
In this Lecture
§ Introduction to Research
§ Definition of Research
§ Purpose of Research
§ Characteristics of Research
§ Types of Research
§ Research Process
§ Criteria for Good Research
Introduction to Research
Research
is a fundamental and effective instrument for advancing mankind. Without
systematic investigation there would have been very little improvement.
The term "Research"
is comprised from of the words "Re" and "Search."
It implies to do a different search. Research, then, is a systematic
investigation or action to learn new information about the facts that already
exist.
Research
is a kind of intellectual work. It is responsible for generate new knowledge.
It is also in responsible for eliminating misconceptions, fixing current
errors, and contributing new information to the collection of existing
knowledge.
Definitions of Research:
Research has been
interpreted and defined by various scholars as per their fields of study and
availability of resources at the given time. You will find out that the basic
meaning and the context of these definitions are same. The difference between
these definitions lies only in the way the author has undertaken research in
his discipline.
According to Thyer,
“the word research is composed of two syllables, re and search. re is a
prefix meaning again, anew or over again search is a verb meaning to examine
closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe. Together they form a noun
describing a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field
of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles”.
As per the Merriam-Webster
Online Dictionary, the word research is derived from the Middle
French ‘recherche’, which means ‘to go about seeking’, the term itself being
derived from the Old French term ‘recerchier’ a compound word from ‘re’ + ‘cerchier’,
or ‘searcher’, meaning ‘search’.
According to Rocco,
"Research is a careful investigation or inquiry especially through
search for new facts in any branch of knowledge."
According to Redman
and Mory, “Research is a movement, a movement from the known to the
unknown”
According to Kothari,
C.R., “Research is manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for
the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether
that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art”
According to Creswell,
"Research is systematic investigation to establish the facts."
According to Clifford
woody, "research comprises defining and redefining problems,
formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions collecting, organizing and
evaluating data, making deductions and reaching conclusions; to determine
whether they fit the formulating hypothesis."
According to Kara,
H. "Research is an art
of scientific investigation."
Nissim Cohen and
Tamar Arieli explain that research
means "gathering and analyzing a body of information or data and
extracting new meaning from it or developing unique solutions to problems or
cases. This is "real" research and requires an open-ended question
for which there is no ready answer.
Ranjit Kumar,
said that "research is “a careful investigation or enquiry especially through
search for new facts in any branch of knowledge."
A broad definition of
research is given by Martyn Shuttleworth – “In the broadest
sense of the word, the definition of research includes any gathering of data,
information and facts for the advancement of knowledge”.
Another definition of
research is given by Creswell who states that – Research is a
process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our
understanding of a topic or issue. It consists of three steps: Pose a
question, collect data to answer the question, and present an answer to the
question.
Purpose of Research:
Investigating problems
and using scientific methods to find solutions is the aim of research. The
primary goal of research is to uncover the hidden truth that hasn't been found
yet. The purposes of research can vary depending on the field of study and the
researcher's objectives. Here are some of the key purposes of research:
Exploration
- To investigate a new phenomenon,
topic, or field with little existing information.
- Example: Exploring the potential of a
newly discovered material for industrial use.
Description
- To systematically describe
characteristics, behaviors, or situations.
- Example: Documenting demographic
trends in a specific population.
Explanation
- To understand the cause-and-effect
relationships or underlying principles of a phenomenon.
- Example: Analyzing why certain
behaviors lead to specific outcomes.
Prediction
- To forecast future occurrences or
trends based on current data or observations.
- Example: Predicting the impact of
climate change on crop production.
Control
- To identify ways to manipulate
variables or conditions to achieve desired outcomes.
- Example: Developing medical
treatments to control or cure diseases.
Innovation
- To create new products, processes,
theories, or technologies.
- Example: Researching new algorithms
to improve artificial intelligence.
Evaluation
- To assess the effectiveness or
outcomes of programs, policies, or interventions.
- Example: Evaluating the success of a
new teaching method in improving student performance.
Problem-Solving
- To identify and address specific
issues or challenges.
- Example: Finding solutions for water
scarcity in arid regions.
Verification
- To validate or refute existing
theories, hypotheses, or findings.
- Example: Testing the reliability of a
scientific theory under different conditions.
Development of Knowledge
- To expand the body of knowledge in a
specific field or discipline.
- Example: Conducting longitudinal
studies on human behavior to deepen psychological understanding.
Characteristics of Research:
Following are the
characteristics of research
1) Research
is directed toward the solution of a problem.
2) Research
requires expertise.
3) Research
emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles, or theories that
will be helpful in predicting future occurrences.
4) Research
is based upon observable experience or empirical evidences.
5) Research
demands accurate observation and description.
6) Research
involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or using
existing data for a new purpose.
7) Research
is characterized by carefully designed procedures that apply rigorous analysis.
8) Research
involves the quest for answers to un-solved problems.
9) Research
strives to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to validate
the procedures employed the data collected and the conclusions reached.
10)
Research is characterized by patient and
unhurried activity.
11)
Research is carefully recorded and
collected.
12)
Research sometimes requires courage.
Pandey, Prabhat., &
Pandey, M. Mishra. (2015). Research methodology: tools & techniques.
Bridge Center.
Types of research
1.
Applied research
Applied research denotes
scientific investigation aimed at addressing practical issues. Applied research
is utilized to identify answers to daily issues, repair problems, and advance
creative technology, instead of acquiring information for its own purpose.
Applied research is a type of research aimed at solving specific, practical
problems or developing innovative solutions to real-world challenges.
Key Characteristics of
Applied Research
A. Goal-Oriented
o Focuses
on addressing a particular issue or improving processes, technologies, or
products.
o Example:
Developing a vaccine for a disease.
B. Practical
Application
o Results
are directly applicable to industry, healthcare, education, or other fields.
o Example:
Creating a more efficient method for water purification.
C. Problem-Specific
o Targets
a defined and often immediate problem.
o Example:
Designing earthquake-resistant buildings in high-risk zones.
D. Use
of Existing Knowledge
o Applies
theories, principles, and techniques developed through basic research to
practical problems.
o Example:
Using AI models to optimize traffic management systems.
Examples of
Applied Research in Engineering
A. Civil
Engineering
o Designing
sustainable and cost-effective building materials.
o Developing
flood mitigation systems.
B. Mechanical
Engineering
o Enhancing
the efficiency of wind turbines.
o Prototyping
autonomous robots for industrial tasks.
C. Electrical
Engineering
o Developing
energy-efficient batteries for electric vehicles.
o Improving
solar panel efficiency through advanced materials.
D. Computer
Science
o Creating
algorithms to detect and mitigate cybersecurity threats.
o Developing
software for virtual reality training programs.
E. Chemical
Engineering
o Designing
biodegradable plastics.
o Innovating
cleaner chemical production methods.
2.
Basic Research
Also known as fundamental
research or pure research, is a type of research conducted to
increase our understanding of fundamental principles and phenomena. It is
driven by curiosity and a desire to expand knowledge, without an immediate
focus on practical applications.
Key Characteristics of
Basic Research
A. Exploratory
Nature
o Aims
to explore and understand foundational concepts and processes.
o Example:
Investigating how atoms interact to form molecules.
B. Knowledge-Driven
o Focuses
on generating new knowledge rather than solving specific problems.
o Example:
Studying the properties of quantum particles.
C. No
Immediate Application
o Results
may not have direct or immediate practical applications but often serve as the
foundation for applied research.
o Example:
Understanding the behavior of light waves may later inform optical fiber
technology.
D. Theoretical
Framework
o Often
involves developing theories, models, or hypotheses about natural phenomena.
o Example:
Formulating the theory of general relativity.
Examples of Basic
Research
A. Physics
o Studying
the fundamental forces of nature (gravity, electromagnetism, etc.).
o Exploring
the properties of subatomic particles.
B. Biology
o Investigating
how genes regulate cell functions.
o Understanding
the process of photosynthesis at a molecular level.
C. Chemistry
o Exploring
the interactions between atoms and molecules.
o Studying
the mechanisms of chemical reactions.
D. Social
Sciences
o Understanding
human decision-making processes.
o Investigating
the impact of culture on behavior.
E. Engineering
o Exploring
the properties of new materials like graphene.
o Studying
fluid dynamics to understand flow behaviors.
3.
Correlational research
Correlational research is
a type of non-experimental research method used to measure the relationship
between two or more variables to determine whether they are associated
(correlated). It does not involve manipulating variables but instead observes
them in their natural state to understand how changes in one variable relate to
changes in another.
Key Characteristics of
Correlational Research
A. Relationship
Exploration
o Focuses
on identifying the strength and direction of the relationship between
variables.
o Example:
Studying the relationship between hours of study and exam performance.
B. No
Cause-and-Effect
o Cannot
establish causation, only correlation.
o Example:
A positive correlation between ice cream sales and crime rates does not imply
that one causes the other.
C. Quantitative
Analysis
o Relies
on statistical measures, such as the correlation coefficient (rrr).
D. Real-World
Observations
o Variables
are observed in natural settings without manipulation.
o Example:
Measuring the correlation between exercise frequency and mental well-being.
Types of Correlations
A. Positive
Correlation
o Both
variables increase or decrease together.
o Example:
Higher levels of education are associated with higher income.
B. Negative
Correlation
o One
variable increase as the other decreases.
o Example:
Increased screen time is associated with lower sleep quality.
C. Zero
Correlation
o No
relationship between the variables.
o Example:
Shoe size and intelligence.
Examples of Correlational
Research
A. Education
o Exploring
the relationship between attendance rates and academic performance.
B. Health
o Investigating
the correlation between smoking and lung cancer risk.
C. Psychology
o Analyzing
the link between stress levels and productivity.
D. Sociology
o Studying
the relationship between social media usage and feelings of loneliness.
4.
Descriptive Research
Descriptive research is a
type of research aimed at systematically describing characteristics, behaviors,
or phenomena without manipulating variables. It seeks to answer the
"what" questions about a subject by collecting and analyzing data,
providing a detailed understanding of its current state. Descriptive research,
also known as statistical research.
Key Characteristics of
Descriptive Research
A. Focus
on Description
o It
emphasizes providing a clear and detailed depiction of phenomena.
o Example:
Studying the demographic profile of a population.
B. Non-Experimental
o No
manipulation of variables; it purely observes and records.
o Example:
Analyzing customer satisfaction surveys.
C. Quantitative
or Qualitative
o Can
involve numerical data (e.g., statistics) or descriptive data (e.g.,
interviews, observations).
D. Snapshot
of Current State
o Often
represents a specific moment in time.
o Example:
Describing the current trends in renewable energy adoption.
Examples of Descriptive
Research
A. Education
o Describing
students' study habits and their impact on academic performance.
B. Healthcare
o Assessing
patient satisfaction with hospital services.
C. Sociology
o Analyzing
demographic changes in urban populations.
D. Business
o Studying
market trends and consumer preferences.
5.
Analytical Research
Analytical research is a
type of research that involves critical thinking and evaluation to explore the
"how" and "why" of a phenomenon. It goes beyond merely
describing facts or events and focuses on interpreting and analyzing data to
draw conclusions or develop new insights.
Key Characteristics of
Analytical Research
A. Critical
Examination
o Involves
in-depth investigation to understand relationships, causes, and effects.
o Example:
Analyzing the impact of government policies on economic growth.
B. Logical
and Systematic
o Relies
on structured methodologies and logical reasoning.
o Example:
Using statistical models to study population trends.
C. Focus
on Interpretation
o Seeks
to explain underlying patterns, connections, and meanings.
o Example:
Exploring why certain teaching methods are more effective.
D. Data-Driven
o Often
involves collecting and analyzing quantitative or qualitative data.
o Example:
Analyzing survey responses to predict consumer behavior.
Examples of Analytical
Research
A. Economics
o Analyzing
the relationship between inflation and unemployment rates.
B. Healthcare
o Examining
the effectiveness of a new treatment compared to existing methods.
C. Education
o Investigating
the factors that contribute to high dropout rates in schools.
D. Engineering
o Evaluating
the efficiency of different renewable energy technologies.
E. Business
o Studying
the impact of marketing strategies on customer retention.
6.
Qualitative research
Qualitative research is a type of research that focuses on
understanding concepts, experiences, or phenomena through in-depth exploration
and interpretation. Unlike quantitative research, which uses numerical data and
statistical analysis, qualitative research emphasizes non-numerical data such
as words, images, beliefs, meanings, or observations to provide rich,
contextual insights.
Key Characteristics of Qualitative Research
A.
Exploratory
in Nature
o Seeks to explore and understand
phenomena rather than measure or quantify them.
o Example: Investigating the experiences
of patients with chronic illnesses.
B.
Subjective
and Interpretive
o Relies on the researcher's
interpretation to analyze meanings and patterns.
o Example: Analyzing the themes in
interview transcripts.
C.
Non-Numerical
Data
o Data sources include interviews, focus
groups, observations, and textual or visual materials.
o Example: Studying the cultural
significance of rituals through participant observation.
D.
Context-Dependent
o Emphasizes understanding phenomena
within their natural settings.
o Example: Examining how teachers
interact with students in a classroom environment.
E.
Flexible
and Adaptive
o Research methods may evolve as new
insights emerge.
o Example: Adjusting interview questions
based on early findings.
Methods of Qualitative Research
A.
Interviews
o Conducting in-depth or semi-structured
interviews to gather detailed information.
o Example: Interviewing survivors of
natural disasters to understand their coping mechanisms.
B.
Focus
Groups
o Facilitating group discussions to
explore shared experiences and perspectives.
o Example: Understanding consumer
opinions on a new product.
C.
Observation
o Systematic observation of behaviors or
events in natural settings.
o Example: Observing interactions in a
team meeting to study group dynamics.
D.
Case
Studies
o In-depth exploration of a single
individual, group, or event.
o Example: Analyzing the success factors
of a startup company.
E.
Content
Analysis
o Analyzing texts, media, or visual
content to identify patterns or themes.
o Example: Studying representations of
gender in advertisements.
F.
Ethnography
o Immersive study of cultures or
communities.
o Example: Living in a remote village to
understand traditional agricultural practices.
Examples of Qualitative Research
1.
Healthcare
o Understanding patients' emotional
experiences during chemotherapy.
2.
Education
o Exploring how students perceive the
effectiveness of online learning.
3.
Sociology
o Investigating the impact of
urbanization on community relationships.
4.
Business
o Examining consumer preferences through focus
groups.
5.
Psychology
o Studying how individuals cope with
grief through interviews and observations.
6.
Quantitative research
Quantitative research is a systematic investigation that
focuses on quantifying data and applying statistical, mathematical, or
computational techniques to analyze it. It is used to test hypotheses,
establish patterns, and make predictions by collecting numerical data from a
defined sample or population.
Key Characteristics of Quantitative Research
A.
Numerical
Data
o Collects measurable data such as
counts, percentages, or other numerical values.
o Example: Measuring student test scores
to evaluate performance.
B.
Objective
and Systematic
o Emphasizes objectivity, reliability,
and replicability.
o Example: Using standardized surveys to
assess customer satisfaction.
C.
Statistical
Analysis
o Uses statistical tools to analyze and
interpret data.
o Example: Regression analysis to
determine the relationship between variables.
D.
Hypothesis
Testing
o Often begins with a hypothesis and
seeks to confirm or reject it through analysis.
o Example: Testing whether exercise
reduces blood pressure.
E.
Structured
Methodology
o Follows a fixed research design to
ensure consistency.
o Example: Conducting a controlled
experiment.
Methods of Quantitative Research
A.
Surveys
and Questionnaires
o Collecting data from large populations
using structured questions.
o Example: Polling voters to predict
election outcomes.
B.
Experiments
o Manipulating one variable (independent)
to observe its effect on another (dependent).
o Example: Testing the effectiveness of a
new drug in a clinical trial.
C.
Observational
Studies
o Systematically observing and recording
numerical data without manipulation.
o Example: Counting vehicles passing
through an intersection to study traffic patterns.
D.
Secondary
Data Analysis
o Analyzing existing datasets such as
census data or company sales reports.
o Example: Studying trends in global
carbon emissions using UN data.
E.
Longitudinal
Studies
o Collecting data over an extended period
to observe trends or changes.
o Example: Tracking weight loss in
participants of a fitness program over a year.
Examples of Quantitative Research
A.
Healthcare
o Measuring the incidence of diabetes in
a population.
B.
Education
o Analyzing the correlation between study
hours and academic performance.
C.
Business
o Assessing the market share of different
products through sales data.
D.
Engineering
o Testing the durability of materials
under different stress conditions.
E.
Psychology
o Measuring levels of anxiety using
standardized scales.
7.
Experimental research
Experimental research is the technique of the research which
is scientific where the causes and effects can be established between the
variables. It also involves changing one or more independent variables IVs for
the sake of investigating their impact on dependent variables DVs while holding
other variables constant in order to eliminate their influence. This technique
is rather employed in order to prove the theory and the interrelations of the
variables.
Key Characteristics of Experimental Research
A.
Manipulation
of Variables
o Independent variables are deliberately
changed to observe their effects on dependent variables.
o Example: Testing how different levels
of sunlight affect plant growth.
B.
Control
Group and Experimental Group
o Participants are divided into groups,
where one receives the treatment (experimental) and the other does not
(control).
o Example: Giving one group a new
medication and the other a placebo.
C.
Randomization
o Subjects are randomly assigned to
groups to reduce bias and ensure equal distribution of characteristics.
o Example: Randomly assigning
participants to a high-intensity or low-intensity exercise program.
D.
Replication
o The experiment can be repeated to
verify results and ensure reliability.
o Example: Repeating a drug efficacy test
with different populations.
E.
Cause-and-Effect
o Aims to establish causal relationships
by isolating the effects of the independent variable.
o Example: Determining whether a teaching
method directly improves test scores.
Steps in Experimental Research
A.
Identify
the Problem
o Define the research question or
hypothesis.
o Example: Does a specific diet lower
blood pressure?
B.
Define
Variables
o Specify the independent, dependent, and
control variables.
o Example: Independent: Diet type;
Dependent: Blood pressure levels.
C.
Select
Participants
o Choose a representative sample through
random or purposive sampling.
o Example: Recruiting 100 participants
with high blood pressure.
D.
Design
the Experiment
o Develop the procedures for implementing
the intervention and measurements.
o Example: Plan a 12-week dietary
intervention program.
E.
Conduct
the Experiment
o Implement the intervention and collect
data on dependent variables.
o Example: Measure participants’ blood
pressure weekly.
F.
Analyze
Data
o Use statistical tools to interpret
results and test the hypothesis.
o Example: Conduct a t-test to compare
blood pressure reductions between groups.
G.
Report
Results
o Present findings and discuss their
implications.
Examples of Experimental Research
A.
Healthcare
o Testing the efficacy of a new drug
compared to an existing treatment.
B.
Education
o Investigating whether interactive
teaching methods improve student engagement.
C.
Psychology
o Studying the impact of sleep
deprivation on cognitive performance.
D.
Business
o Analyzing the effect of different
advertising strategies on customer purchase rates.
E.
Engineering
o Evaluating the durability of a material
under controlled stress conditions.
8.
Exploratory research
Exploratory research is a type of research designed to
investigate a problem or issue that has not been clearly defined or is poorly
understood. The goal of exploratory research is to gather insights, identify
patterns, and generate hypotheses that can inform further, more detailed
studies. It is often used when the researcher has limited knowledge of a topic
and seeks to explore it more broadly to gain a better understanding.
Key Characteristics of Exploratory Research
A.
Preliminary
Investigation
o It’s often the first step in the
research process, conducted before more focused or specific research.
o Example: Exploring how social media
impacts youth behavior without a defined hypothesis.
B.
Flexibility
o Researchers may adjust the direction of
the study as new information emerges.
o Example: Shifting focus from one factor
to another based on initial findings.
C.
Qualitative
in Nature
o Typically involves qualitative methods
such as interviews, focus groups, or case studies, but may include quantitative
aspects.
o Example: Conducting interviews to
understand public opinion on climate change.
D.
Unstructured
or Semi-Structured Approach
o There is less rigidity in terms of
methods, allowing for open-ended exploration.
o Example: Observing behavior in a new
setting and recording any relevant findings.
E.
Generates
Ideas or Hypotheses
o Rather than answering specific
questions, it generates hypotheses or identifies variables that could be tested
in subsequent studies.
o Example: Exploring the potential
factors that might influence employee turnover rates.
Methods of Exploratory Research
A.
Literature
Review
o Reviewing existing studies and theories
to understand what is already known and identify gaps.
o Example: Reading academic papers on
urbanization to find unexplored areas.
B.
Interviews
o Conducting open-ended or
semi-structured interviews with key informants to gain insights.
o Example: Interviewing industry experts
to explore trends in technology.
C.
Focus
Groups
o Group discussions where participants
share their experiences, opinions, or perceptions about a topic.
o Example: Discussing potential product
features with a group of consumers.
D.
Case
Studies
o Analyzing one or a few instances of a
phenomenon in depth to uncover patterns or themes.
o Example: Examining a single company’s
adoption of sustainability practices.
E.
Observation
o Observing subjects or situations in
their natural environment without interference.
o Example: Observing customer behavior in
a retail store to identify patterns.
F.
Surveys
o Asking open-ended or broad questions to
gather initial data.
o Example: Sending out broad surveys to
understand public opinion on health policies.
Examples of Exploratory Research
A.
Healthcare
o Exploring the factors contributing to
the rise of a new disease before any clear patterns emerge.
B.
Business
o Investigating consumer attitudes toward
a new product category before designing a detailed marketing strategy.
C.
Social
Sciences
o Studying social media usage in a new
demographic to identify emerging trends.
D.
Technology
o Exploring the potential benefits and
challenges of introducing new technology in a specific industry.
E.
Education
o Investigating teachers’ perceptions of
remote learning methods before formal studies are conducted.
9. Ethnographic research
Ethnographic research is a qualitative research method focused on studying people
and cultures in their natural environment. It involves the systematic collection, description, and
analysis of data for development of theories of cultural behaviour.
It analyzes people, ethnic groups and other ethnic
formations, their ethno origin, composition, resettlement, social welfare
characteristics, as well as their material and spiritual culture.
Data collecting is generally done by participant
observation, interviews, questionnaires, etc.
10.
Historical research
Historical research is a type of research focused on investigating and
analyzing past events, situations, or developments to gain insights, understand
causes, and uncover patterns over time. This method involves gathering and
evaluating historical data, such as documents, records, artifacts, and other
primary and secondary sources, to interpret historical events or trends.
11.
Longitudinal research
Longitudinal research is a type of study that involves repeated observations or
measurements of the same individuals or groups over an extended period of time.
The purpose of longitudinal research is to track changes, developments, or
trends over time, allowing researchers to observe cause-and-effect
relationships and how specific variables evolve.
Example: Studying the long-term effects of smoking on health
over 20 years.
12.
Cross-sectional
research
Cross-sectional research is a type of observational study that involves analyzing
data from a population, or a representative subset, at a single point in time.
This research method is often used to examine the prevalence of a particular
characteristic, condition, or behavior within a specific group or population at
one moment, providing a snapshot of the subject being studied.
Example: Examining the current smoking habits of teenagers
in a particular city.
13.
Survey
research
Survey research is a quantitative research method used to collect data from
a predefined group of respondents through structured questions. It is one of
the most common and effective ways to gather information from a large number of
people, particularly when studying opinions, behaviors, experiences, or
characteristics of a population.
Example: Surveying a random sample of 1,000 adults from a
country to understand their views on climate change.
14.
Laboratory Research
Laboratory research refers to studies conducted in
controlled, indoor environments where variables can be carefully monitored and
manipulated. These studies are typically conducted in a lab setting, such as a
university, research institute, or corporate research facility.
15.
Field
Research
Field research, on the other hand, refers to the collection
of data outside of a laboratory, often in real-world settings where variables
are not controlled. This method is used to gather data from natural
environments or settings where the subject matter occurs naturally.
16.
Philosophical
research
Philosophical research refers to the process of inquiry into fundamental questions
concerning existence, knowledge, values, reason, and reality. It involves the
exploration of abstract concepts, logical reasoning, and the examination of
assumptions underlying human thought and experience. Philosophical research is
typically less concerned with empirical data and more focused on conceptual
analysis, arguments, and the development of ideas.
17.
Case-study
research
Case-study research is a qualitative research method that involves an in-depth,
detailed examination of a single instance, event, individual, group, or
phenomenon within its real-life context. This approach is often used to explore
complex issues in their natural settings, where variables are not easily
isolated. Case studies are widely used in social sciences, business, education,
medicine, and other fields to provide comprehensive insights into a specific
case.
Example: A case study on how a company overcame a
significant financial crisis by examining its strategies, decisions, and
outcomes.
Research Process
The research process is a systematic, step-by-step
procedure used to investigate a specific problem or question, collect relevant
data, and analyze the findings in order to draw conclusions. This process helps
ensure that research is conducted methodically and that the findings are
credible and reliable. The exact steps may vary depending on the type of
research (qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods), but the general steps
remain consistent.
(1)
formulating the research problem;
The process of formulating a research
problem involves two main steps: understanding the problem thoroughly and
rephrasing it into specific, analytical terms. The researcher begins by
identifying the general area of interest and narrowing it down through
discussions with colleagues, experts, or a guide, who helps refine the problem.
In academic or organizational settings, the problem may be initially presented
in broad terms, and it is the researcher's task to define it more precisely.
A thorough review of existing
literature is essential to understand the problem better. This involves
reviewing both conceptual literature (theories and concepts) and empirical
literature (similar past studies). The purpose of this review is to gather data
and insights that help frame the problem in a meaningful context. The
researcher then rephrases the problem in operational terms to ensure clarity
and specificity, which helps in distinguishing relevant from irrelevant data.
Defining the research problem clearly
is critical, as it influences the data to be collected, the techniques used,
and the final report's structure. The problem definition may go through several
stages of refinement, becoming progressively more specific and realistic, based
on the available data and resources. Clear definitions of relevant terms are
also important to ensure objectivity and validity throughout the research
process.
(2)
extensive literature survey;
Once the research problem is
formulated, the researcher should write a brief summary of the problem. For
Ph.D. candidates, submitting a synopsis for approval by the relevant committee
is mandatory. The next step involves conducting an extensive literature review
related to the problem. The researcher should consult abstracting and indexing
journals, bibliographies, academic journals, conference proceedings, government
reports, books, and other relevant sources. It's important to note that one
source often leads to another. Previous studies similar to the current research
should be carefully reviewed. A well-equipped library can be very helpful
during this stage.
(3)
developing the hypothesis;
After conducting an extensive
literature review, the researcher should clearly state the working hypothesis
or hypotheses. A working hypothesis is a tentative assumption made to test its
logical or empirical consequences, providing a focal point for the research. It
guides the research by delimiting the area of study, focusing attention on key
aspects, and determining the type of data and analysis methods needed.
Developing working hypotheses involves:
I.
Discussing
the problem and objectives with colleagues and experts.
II.
Examining
available data and records for trends or clues.
III.
Reviewing
similar studies or related research.
IV.
Conducting
exploratory personal investigations, such as field interviews, to gain
practical insights.
Working hypotheses are typically
formulated through a combination of prior thinking, available data, expert
advice, and related studies. While working hypotheses are crucial in most
research types, they may not be needed in exploratory or formulative research,
where hypothesis testing is not the focus.
(4)
preparing the research design;
Once the research problem is clearly
formulated, the researcher must prepare a research design, which outlines the
conceptual framework for conducting the study. The research design aims to
collect relevant evidence efficiently, minimizing the use of time, effort, and
money. The design depends on the research purpose, which can fall into one of
four categories: exploration, description, diagnosis, and experimentation.
For exploratory research, a flexible
design is ideal, allowing for multiple perspectives. For descriptive research,
the design should minimize bias and maximize data reliability. Research designs
can be experimental or non-experimental, with experimental designs ranging from
informal (e.g., before-and-after designs) to formal (e.g., randomized block
design or factorial designs).
When preparing the research design, the
researcher must consider:
I.
How
the information will be obtained.
II.
The
skills and availability of the researcher and staff.
III.
The
organization of the data collection process and reasoning behind the methods.
IV.
The
available time for research.
V.
The
financial resources available for the study.
(5)
determining sample design;
Determining the sample design involves
selecting the method for choosing a representative sample from the population.
Key steps include defining the population, creating a sampling frame, and
choosing a sampling method (probability or non-probability). Probability
methods include simple random, stratified, cluster, and systematic sampling,
while non-probability methods include convenience, judgmental, and quota
sampling. The sample size must be decided based on factors like the population
size and required accuracy. Lastly, a data collection plan is established. A
well-designed sample ensures accurate, reliable, and generalizable research
results.
(6)
collecting the data;
When facing a real-life problem,
researchers often find existing data inadequate and need to collect appropriate
data. Data collection methods vary in cost, time, and resources. Primary data
can be gathered through experiments or surveys. In surveys, data can be
collected in several ways:
I.
By
observation:
The researcher observes without interacting with respondents. This method is
costly and limited in scope, making it unsuitable for large samples.
II.
Through
personal interviews:
Structured interviews with a set of pre-conceived questions, relying heavily on
the interviewer's skills.
III.
Through
telephone interviews:
Respondents are contacted by phone, often used in industrial surveys when time
is limited.
IV.
By
mailing questionnaires:
Questionnaires are sent to respondents who complete and return them. A pilot
study is typically conducted first to refine the questionnaire.
V.
Through
schedules: Enumerators
are trained to collect data using predefined questions during face-to-face
interactions with respondents. The method relies on enumerators' skills and may
require occasional field checks.
The researcher should choose the
appropriate method based on the nature of the investigation, objectives, scope,
available resources, time, and required accuracy.
(7)
execution of the project;
Execution of the project is a critical
step in the research process. To ensure adequate and reliable data, the project
must be carried out systematically and on time. For surveys using structured
questionnaires, data can be machine-processed, with questions and answers
coded. If interviews are used, proper selection and training of interviewers
are essential, with training manuals and occasional field checks to ensure
efficiency. Researchers should stay alert for unforeseen factors to maintain
the survey’s realism and statistical control, ensuring accuracy. In case of
non-cooperation from respondents, strategies like taking a sub-sample of
non-respondents and working with experts to secure responses should be
implemented.
(8)
analysis of data;
After data collection, the researcher
analyzes the data by organizing it into categories, coding, and tabulating it
for further analysis. Raw data is classified into usable categories, and coding
transforms data into symbols for tabulation. Editing improves data quality
before tabulation, often done with the help of computers, especially for large
datasets. Statistical analysis follows, involving calculations like percentages
and coefficients. Hypotheses are tested for significance to determine the validity
of conclusions. For example, statistical tests can determine if differences in
sample means are real or due to chance. Techniques like analysis of variance
are used to compare multiple groups. Overall, statistical methods help draw
meaningful conclusions from the data.
(9)
hypothesis testing;
After analyzing the data, the researcher
tests the formulated hypotheses to determine if the facts support or contradict
them. Various statistical tests, such as Chi-square, t-test, and F-test, are
used depending on the research's nature and objectives. The outcome of
hypothesis testing will either confirm or reject the hypothesis. If no
hypotheses were formulated initially, generalizations based on the data may be
stated as hypotheses for future research.
(10)
generalizations and interpretation
If a hypothesis is repeatedly upheld,
the researcher may arrive at generalizations or develop a theory, which is the
true value of research. If no hypothesis was initially formulated, the
researcher may explain the findings using an existing theory, a process known
as interpretation. This interpretation can often generate new questions,
leading to further research.
(11)
preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i.e., formal write-up
of conclusions reached.
A research report is a detailed
document that communicates the findings, methodology, and conclusions of a
research study. It provides a structured account of the research process and
its results, serving as a formal record of the study.
Criteria of Good Research
Good research is characterized by several key criteria that ensure its reliability, validity, and contribution to the field. These criteria guide researchers in conducting studies that are both methodologically sound and meaningful. The main criteria of good research are:
I.
The
research objective should be clearly stated, and standard terminology should be
used.
II.
The
research methodology should be described in enough detail to allow other
researchers to replicate the study and build upon previous work.
III.
The
research design should be thoroughly planned to ensure the results are as
objective as possible.
IV.
The
researcher must report any flaws in the research design with complete honesty
and assess their impact on the results.
V.
Data
analysis should be comprehensive enough to demonstrate its significance, and
the methods used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the
data must be carefully verified.
VI.
Conclusions
should be drawn only from the data of the study and should be limited to those
that the data can support.
VII.
The
credibility of the research increases if the researcher is experienced,
well-regarded in the field, and upholds integrity.